Dr. Gabriel Díaz Maggioli is Professor of Methods (English) at Uruguay’s National Council for Teacher Education and Director of Postgraduate ELT Programs at Universidad ORT Uruguay. A teacher at heart, he has worked as an educator, researcher, consultant, and author across five continents. He is also a past IATEFL President. Email: diaz_g@ort.edu.uy        

 

 

Introduction

Teachers of English often ask a deceptively simple question: How do people actually learn another language? The truth is, despite decades of research, we still don’t fully know. What we do have are what I like to call cautious certainties: insights drawn from research and classroom practice that shed light on the process but remain open to revision.

This matters because many of us were trained under the banner of ‘methods’. We were told to teach ‘the communicative way’ or to follow a fixed recipe. But methods often turn into mirages—offering apparent clarity while overlooking the diversity of learners, contexts, and goals that shape every classroom. What teachers need today is not another rigid method but a set of flexible principles—research-based guidelines that support effective, inclusive, and meaningful learning for all.

 

Learning begins with self-awareness

One powerful certainty is that language learning is not only cognitive but also metacognitive. When learners reflect on where they are, how far they have come, and where they are going, they develop confidence and self-efficacy. Research shows that self-awareness fosters motivation and strategic learning (Zimmerman, 2002).

Hattie (2009) found that self-reported grades—students’ ability to evaluate their own progress—carry an effect size of d = 1.33, the highest of all influences he studied. Integrating reflection through journals, goal setting, or peer assessment empowers all learners, not just the most confident, giving them equitable tools to author their own learning journeys, (NB. Effect size is a way of showing how powerful a teaching strategy is. John Hattie compared thousands of studies and found that if a strategy scores above 0.40, it usually makes a real difference in learning. The higher the number, the stronger the impact on students’ progress.)

 

 

Prior knowledge: the foundation for growth

Another certainty is that background knowledge is essential. Learners bring prior experiences, languages, and strategies into every classroom. Hattie (2009) reports an effect size of d = 0.68 for prior achievement, confirming its strong predictive power. For teachers, this means actively activating what students already know—about topics, strategies, or language. In multilingual and multicultural classrooms, valuing learners’ backgrounds is also a matter of equity: it communicates that every student’s identity and experience are resources for learning.

 

It’s not acquisition or learning—it’s both

For years, teachers debated whether second languages are “acquired” naturally or “learned” through explicit teaching. We now know this is a false dichotomy. Learners need both. They benefit from communicative opportunities where language is “picked up,” but also from mediation: explanation, scaffolding, and feedback from teachers. Henshaw and Hawkins (2022) argue that exposure without mediation leaves many behind, while mediation without communicative use results in sterile practice. Hattie’s (2009) evidence reinforces this, showing feedback (d = 0.73) and scaffolding (d= 0.82) as high-impact practices. Balancing acquisition and learning ensures no student is left without access to progress.

 

From meaning to form

Building a linguistic system often moves from meaning toward form. Learners first need to understand why a feature is used, then what it means, then how it sounds, and only later how it is structured. Hattie (2009, 2017) confirms the power of explicit instruction, with effect sizes of around d = 0.59–0.60. For teachers, this means giving students room to use language communicatively, while also providing timely guidance to help them notice patterns. This explicit focus is especially crucial for students who lack rich exposure to English outside school, ensuring access for all.

 

Practice that pushes deeper

Encountering new language is not enough; learners must practice actively. Practice typically progresses from repetition to personalization to communication. Yet Scrivener and Underhill (2012) argue that ‘just doing the exercise’ is not enough. Their Demand-High Teaching encourages teachers to extend tasks so that learners recall, elaborate, and personalize output. For example, after completing sentences about an athlete’s abilities, students might close their books and recall them, answer questions, and then describe their own abilities. These small extensions deepen processing and make practice meaningful, offering every learner a fair chance to succeed.

 

Engagement and persistence

Practice works best when it is engaging. Learners progress most when they persist in meaningful communication. Hattie (2009) found persistence and engagement to have an effect size of d = 0.48, while classroom discussion achieved d = 0.82. This shows that learners thrive when lessons demand effort and invite dialogue. For inclusive classrooms, engagement also means designing activities with multiple entry points so that learners with different profiles—whether quieter, neurodiverse, or less literate—can contribute meaningfully.

 

Learning for today

Guy Cook (2010) observed that much ELT prepares learners for tomorrow—jobs, travel, study abroad—while neglecting the needs of today. Yet learners are more motivated when English meets immediate goals: joining a gaming community, collaborating on a project, or speaking with classmates. Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) show that motivation grows when tasks connect with learners’ lives.

 

Reflection closes the circle

Finally, learning comes full circle through reflection and self-assessment. Hattie (2009) found that self-evaluation (d = 0.75) and self-reported progress (d = 1.33) are among the strongest drivers of success. When learners keep journals, use checklists, or give peer feedback, they learn to monitor progress and set new goals. Such practices democratize learning, giving every student—not only the confident or outspoken—a voice in defining and celebrating progress.

 

From certainties to principled practice

These cautious certainties—metacognition, prior knowledge, mediation, explicit instruction, deep practice, engagement, relevance, and reflection—offer teachers more than evidence-based strategies. They point toward principled practice: teaching that is flexible, equitable, and responsive to learners’ real needs.

An example of such principled practice can be found in Díaz Maggioli’s (2024) New Directions in Language Teaching, which introduces the 6Es framework: engage, explore, encounter, experiment, express, and extend. While not a method, the 6Es exemplify how research insights can be translated into a practical compass for teachers. By weaving together exposure, mediation, practice, and reflection, the framework demonstrates how cautious certainties can be transformed into inclusive and accessible learning opportunities for diverse classrooms.

 

Conclusion

Ultimately, teaching languages is about more than grammar or vocabulary—it is about creating classrooms where learners can flourish as individuals and as members of their communities. When teachers embrace principles drawn from research, they are not just following evidence; they are making a statement about inclusion, diversity, equity, and access. Classrooms built on reflection, prior knowledge, mediation, explicit guidance, meaningful practice, engagement, relevance, and self-assessment become spaces where every learner sees their identity affirmed and their potential recognized. By taking these cautious certainties seriously, teachers empower learners not only to master another language but to use it as a tool to connect, to participate, and to transform their worlds—today and tomorrow.

 

References

Cook, G. (2010). Translation in language teaching: An argument for reassessment. Oxford University Press.

Díaz Maggioli, G. (2024). New directions in language teaching. Magró Grupo Editor.

Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). Pearson.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.

Hattie, J. (2017). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge.

Henshaw, F. G., & Hawkins, M. D. (2022). Common ground: Second language acquisition theory goes to the classroom. Hackett Publishing.

Scrivener, J., & Underhill, A. (2012). Demand-high teaching. Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/demand_high_for_teachers_and_learners.pdf

Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2

 

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