Abeer Ali Al Owaisi  is a language instructor at the Center of Preparatory Studies in Sultan Qaboos University. Highly interested in the current trends and challenges in language education, including exploring the role of educational technology and the transformative potential of AI in enhancing teaching and learning outcomes . Passionate about integrating innovative and active learning strategies to foster engagement, critical thinking, and language proficiency. Email: alowaisi@squ.edu.om 

 

Introduction

Published theory and research on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) maintains that learners should be exposed to comprehensible input that is 1) slightly beyond their current level of competence (Krashen, 1985) and 2) enhanced by ample opportunities for negotiated interaction (Long, 1983). Chapelle (2005) proposed that help options can be deemed useful tools for attaining comprehensible input in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) environments since they allow learners to add interactional modifications to the received input. In other words, learners' interaction with help options in a multimedia-based listening has positive effects on their listening comprehension and general language development. Cárdenas-Claros (2011) added that help options can focus learners' attention on specific linguistic features in the target input and thus facilitates their comprehension of the received input provided that the material’s design creates an interactive learning environment in which learners are encouraged to seek a negotiated interaction with the listening input via the computer. Thus, this paper integrates SLA theories and CALL hypotheses to examine the design of multimedia-based listening that is enhanced by help options to support ESL listening comprehension. It opens with a brief review of the literature on listening comprehension and the common problems learners encounter in listening. It also deals with multimedia-based listening and help options in light of the related studies. It, furthermore, discusses Interaction Hypothesis and Multimedia Learning Theory as the theoretical framework. Since the focus of the paper is informing the design of multimedia-based listening that is enhanced by help options in ESL contexts, it concludes with some relevant guidelines and teaching implications.

1. Listening comprehension

The importance of listening is widely recognised due to its crucial role in promoting second language acquisition (Dunkle, 1991; Rost, 2002; Kurita, 2012) by being a valuable source for comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985).Thus, the views revolving around listening as being a passive, unacknowledged and in turn under-researched skill have greatly changed (Morley, 2001, Rost, 2002). According to Buck (2001), listening comprehension is a complex cognitive interaction between bottom-up and top-down processing. As he explained, bottom-up processing deals with the received aural input through successive stages that begin with phonemes decoding at the lowest stage and end up with the semantic message at the highest stages. Top-down processing, on the other hand, relies on learners' background knowledge in comprehending the listening input. Buck (2001) argued that activating both processing types has the potential of involving learners, facilitating their comprehension and in turn maximising their benefit of the received listening input.

Drawing on Buck's (2001) definition, Richards (2008) proposed that listening comprehension tasks should address both processing types to aid learners' comprehension of the listening input. As he demonstrated with some typical examples, question items inquiring about inferring the causes or effects of a topic involve top-down processing while items requiring identifying the phonological clues to distinguish between the positive and the negative effects necessitate bottom-up processing.

Research has indicated a number of factors that can impede listening comprehension. Goh (2000) described listening problems as internal and external input features that can hinder learners' comprehension of the listening input. According to this description and based on a review of the relevant research, these factors can be classified into two groups: 1) internal factors pertaining to certain characteristics of the aural input and 2) external factors relating to the listeners themselves. Within the first group, researchers mentioned fast speech rate (Blau, 1990; Griffths, 1992; Zhao, 1997), unknown vocabulary (Rost, 1992; Buck, 2001), unfamiliar topics (Ur, 1984; Underwood, 1989), difficult grammatical structures (Hasan, 2000), long passages (Goh, 2000; Sun, 2002) and unfamiliarity with the speakers' accents (Chang, Chang, &Kuo, 1995). External factors included learners' proficiency level, inadequate exposure to the target language (Yagang, 1994), insufficient background knowledge about the topic and lack of interest and motivation (Brown, 1995).

Hsu (1994), on the other hand, looked at the problems impeding listening comprehension from a different perspective. He argued that comprehension breakdowns could be attributed to the method of delivering the aural input. As he illustrated, listening input in the traditional classroom is delivered via a recorder or the teacher to learners regardless of their individual differences. This means the input takes the form of one-to-many interaction, which restricts learners' interaction with the received input. Therefore, the researcher pointed out the significant role the computer can play in resolving listening problems. As he explained, the computer gives each learner the opportunity to interact with the target input through the interactional modifications learners can add to the target input at their own pace and according to their needs. This brings about introducing multimedia-based listening in the language classrooms.

 

2. Help options in multimedia-based listening

Help options can be defined as embedded features that are designed to aid learners' understanding of the input and enhance their language development (Cárdenas-Claros, 2011). These features may include elements such as subtitles, translations, media controls such as pause, rewind, and fast-forward, cultural annotations, feedback that offers clarification, glossed terms, access to dictionaries as well as transcripts in both the target language (L2) and the learner’s first language (L1) (Liou, 1997). Research focusing on the use of these aids in multimedia-based listening environments highlights several recurring topics in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL). These include patterns of tool usage or avoidance by learners, how frequently learners engage with these features, their impact on listening comprehension, learners’ perceptions of the value of these tools, and how their usage correlates with various learner variables. .

One of the early studies shedding light on learners' interaction with help options was conducted by Hsu (1994) guided by the purpose of identifying learners' functional moves while interacting with CD-ROM software targeting their listening comprehension. The study focused on the patterns of interaction exhibited by learners when requesting three interactional modifications, namely dictionary, L2 transcript, and input repetition via a replay button in cases of comprehension breakdowns. The findings showed that the participants, 15 ESL learners, demonstrated two different interactional patterns. While the high-proficiency learners, according to a pre-dictation assessment, followed transcript-dictionary pattern, learners of lower language competence used repetition- transcript-dictionary pattern. Hsu attributed high-proficiency learners' non-use of the repetition option to their ability to comprehend the input and answer the relevant questions from the first time. As he explained, they latter accessed transcript and dictionary to confirm their guesses. Low-proficiency learners, on the other hand, needed another opportunity to listen to the aural input, which justified their use of the repetition pattern. The findings, additionally, showed that transcript was the most frequently used and the most useful type of the available three help options followed by repetition and dictionary help options.

According to the qualitative data obtained from semi-structured interviews, the participants requested the transcript frequently since it gave them a second option for comprehending the aural input, namely the visual presentation. This helped learners confirm their guesses. Hsu interpreted the findings of his study as an extension to Long and Sato's (1983) study which examined the forms and functions of teachers' questions in ESL classrooms, concluding that comprehension check was the most frequently used modification. Hsu (1994) argued that in CALL, L2 transcript is a type of comprehension checks as both serve the same purpose, confirmation of guesses.

Although considered pioneering by attempting a discourse analysis of learners' interaction with help options (Liou, 1995), Hsu's study does not provide an adequate record of the reasons behind learners' use or underuse of the target help options. For example, even though the findings noted that dictionary was nearly neglected and it was perceived the least effective help option, the researcher provided no reasons explaining learners' behaviour.

Grgurović (2005) compared learners' interaction with subtitles and L2 transcript of the listening input while working on interactive CD-ROM materials. The researcher found that the participants, 18 ESL learners, followed four patterns in their use of help options: a) only subtitles, b) only transcript, c) mixed interaction, and d) no interaction. This great variation in learners' interaction, as the researcher concluded, indicated that learners do not always take good advantage of the available help options. While some interacted only with one help option (either subtitles or transcript), others ignored both types of help options. This was further supported by the number of help page openings that showed that 55% of page openings were not for using help options. Unlike Hsu's (1994) study that gave emphasis on transcript as the most effective and the most frequently used help option, this study noted that learners showed preference for subtitles over transcript. Based on the data obtained from retrospective interviews and questionnaires, the researcher indicated three possible reasons behind learners' behaviours. These reasons were level of ease, personal preference, and previous experience with help options.

However, a close review of the relevant studies reveals that other explanations, as argued by this paper,  are possible. For example, the high number of help page openings without interacting with help options can be attributed to learners' tendency to explore the relatively novel CD-ROM environment before acting upon the given materials. This explanation aligns with the findings of Desmarais, Duquette, Renie, and Laurier's (1998) study in which they identified two patterns describing learners' interaction with a multimedia videodisc, namely linear and chaotic. As the terms imply, the former pattern describes learners following a linear navigational pattern in their interaction with the materials whereas the latter refers to learners' shifting between the different components of the materials without following a specific order. The researchers observed that learners exhibited a chaotic interaction in the first sessions of introducing the materials while they followed linear patterns once they became familiar with the programme. Thus, consistent with the findings of this study, Grgurović's (2005) findings can be associated with learners' exploration and familiarity with the materials.

A prominent attempt that sought a comprehensive analysis explaining the factors promoting or impeding learners' interaction with help options in a multimedia-based listening was conducted by Cárdenas-Claros and Gruba (2012). Based on a cyclical analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data collected from screen capture software, questionnaire, interviews and observations, five themes were identified as responsible factors regulating learners' use/non-use of help options. These themes were Compatibility, Recovery, Challenge, Familiarity, and Relevance (see Figure 1 below).

Regarding learners' interaction with help options, Cárdenas-Claros and Gruba (2012) found it difficult to establish specific navigational patterns due to the substantial variation in learners' behaviours, corroborating liou's (2000) and Pujolà's (2002) findings. In addition, the findings revealed that audio control buttons were effective in supporting learners' comprehension because they allowed controlling the speed of the received input and repairing comprehension breakdowns through repeating the problematic segments. Moreover, the participants, 15 ESL learners, found transcript useful in offering a visual option for approaching the passage. Yet, dictionary tended to be the most neglected help option due to learners' inability to 1) spell the new words encountered via the aural input and 2) balance the demands of comprehending the listening passage and looking the words up in the dictionary concurrently. Despite the detailed discussion of the factors guiding learners' interaction with help options, the study is considered "largely exploratory" (Cárdenas-Claros and Gruba, 2012, p.16) mainly because of the relatively small sample size.

Pujolà (2002) looked at how the frequency of help options interaction affected learners' comprehension. Additionally, he examined learners' interaction in a multimedia-based programme supplemented with seven help options: cultural notes, dictionary, expert module, feedback, subtitles, transcript and video control buttons. Based on their ability to decode the received input, the participants who were 22 EFL learners were assigned to four groups: high, average, low and poor decoders. Through transcripts of screen capturing devices and direct observations, the findings indicated that the frequency of learners' interaction with help options and learners' performance on listening comprehension followed "varied, idiosyncratic ways" (p. 253) amongst the participants within each group. Hence, the researcher concluded that there was no correlation between the two investigated factors.

Hegelheimer and Tower (2004), on the other hand, reported different findings. The subjects, 94 EFL learners, were offered glossary, microphone button, headphone button, repeat button and ABC button which repeated the previous sentence along with its script as help options to support the multimedia-based listening. According to the listening comprehension scores, the findings showed that the frequency of learners' interaction with help options correlated negatively with their performance.

In a subsequent study, Grgurović and Hegelheimer (2007) investigated the relationship between the two factors by using a multimedia-based listening providing subtitles and transcript as help options for 18 ESL learners. The researchers examined the results of a post-listening test, a delayed test, number of help page openings and instances of effective interaction, referring to the "number of times help pages were opened and participants usefully interacted with them" (Grgurović and Hegelheimer, 2007, p. 53) to interpret the results. Accordingly, their findings reported a positive relationship between the two variables.

Obviously, the findings reported on the relationship between the frequency of help options' use and listening comprehension scores were not conclusive. While some studies found a positive correlation (Hsu, 1994; Jones, 2002; Joness & Plass, 2002; Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007) or a negative correlation (Hegelheimer& Tower, 2004), others found it difficult to establish any relationship between the two variables (Liou, 1997; Pujolà, 2002).

3. Theoretical framework informing the design of multimedia-based listening enhanced by help options

There appears to be a general agreement amongst published CALL theory and research (e,g., Hsu, 1994; Liou, 1997; Pujolà, 2002; Jones, 2003; Hegelheimer and Tower, 2004; Cárdenas-Claros, 2005; Grgurović, 2005; Grgurović and Hegelheimer, 2007; Cárdenas-Claros, 2011; Cárdenas-Claros and Gruba, 2012) that the theoretical basis for studies examining the use of help options in multimedia-based listening should be Long's (1983) Interaction Hypothesis. Mayer's (2001) Multimedia Learning Theory can be deemed principal as well since multimedia-based listening is a key concept.

 

Interaction Hypothesis

This hypothesis highlights the role of interaction and negotiation of meaning in promoting L2 acquisition (Long,1983; Pica, 1994). Based on this hypothesis, Chapelle (1998) presents an interactionist model guiding CALL materials design (see Figure 2 below).

 

This model is shaped by three key components: 1) the characteristics of the received input based on Krashen's (1982) theory of comprehensible input and Schmidt's (1990) Noticing Hypothesis, 2) the opportunities for modified interaction and negotiation of meaning highlighted by the works of Long(1983) and Pica (1994) and 3) the opportunities given to learners to notice the gap between their language output and the target forms advocated by Swain and Lapkin's (1995) Comprehensible Output. According to this model, learners should be exposed to comprehensible input that is 1) slightly beyond learners' proficiency level and 2) consciously attract learners' attention to certain features. This comprehensible input can become intake after being comprehended through semantic and syntactic processing. The intake can in turn be integrated into learners' linguistic repertoire whose development can be evaluated based on learners' output.

In CALL materials' design, help options are considered a means for attaining comprehensible input as they provide just-in-time assistance in cases of comprehension breakdowns (Chapelle, 2005; Grgurovic´ and Hegelheimer, 2007; Cárdenas-Claros and Gruba, 2012). Learners' comprehension, therefore, is expected to increase through the different types of input enhancements offered by help options (see Figure 3 below).

Following Schmidt (1990), Chapelle (2003) emphasised the role of input saliency in L2 language development. The more salient input is made, the more opportunities for L2 acquisition are created. This conclusion was maintained by studies examining input saliency through the availability versus the absence of 1) visible/invisible links (De Ridder, 2002; Nikolova, 2004) and 2) audio/video control buttons (Liou, 1997, 2000; Pujolà, 2002; Hegelheimer and Tower, 2004; Grgurović, 2005) as help options. Modification, on the other hand, is concerned with presenting the target input via more than one mode of information processing (e.g., visual+textual) (Chapelle, 2003). A common research finding on input modification was that learners are more likely to comprehend the input that is supported by the two modes of information processing concurrently (Chun and Plass, 1996; Jones, 2006; Yoshii and Flaitz, 2002). Input elaboration is achieved through help options adding further information enriching the input such as grammar explanations and cultural notes. Research indicated that modification and elaboration are valuable options in facilitating learners' comprehension as they serve as interactional adjustments utilised by native speakers in their conversations with non-native speakers (Rost, 2002). As Chapelle (2005) put it, help options involve learners in a process of interaction and negotiation of meaning with the computer as a participant in the conversation.

 

Multimedia Learning Theory

The key theory in understanding multimedia learning is Paivio's(1969) Dual Coding Theory. This theory proposes that human cognition consists of two distinct subsystems, namely the verbal system which is responsible for the ideas and concepts that are expressed in the form of language and the nonverbal system which deals with non-linguistic input such as images. Learning is more likely to occur if the two subsystems are used simultaneously. Drawing on this theory, Mayer (2005) develops Multimedia Learning Theory which argues that learning takes place when learners "build mental representations from words (such as spoken text or printed text) and pictures such as (illustrations, photos, animations, or video)" (Mayer, 2005, p. 2). Mayer (2009) contends that multimedia-based instruction has the potential of increasing learners' understanding of the taught materials.

Hence, Plass and Jones (2005) examined the implications of Mayer's theory on listening and reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition while working in multimedia-based materials. Accordingly, the researchers pinpointed three principles guiding CALL-based materials: the multimedia principle, the individual difference principle and the advanced organiser principle. The multimedia principle states that learners are more likely to comprehend the received input when it is enhanced textually and visually. The individual principle requires providing learners with optional access to both types of input enhancements (e.g, visual+ verbal annotations). The advance organiser principle entails exposing learners to an advance organiser in advance of teaching. Lin & Chun (2007) define advance organiser as media tool presented prior to teaching so that learners organise their background knowledge about the input and thus facilitate their comprehension.

 

The design of multimedia-based listening enhanced by help options: Guidelines and teaching implications

Most studies examining learners' interaction with help options in a multimedia-based listening employed commercial materials (e.g., interactive CD-ROM programme in Hsu, 1994; Longman English Interactive, Randall’s ESL Cyber Listening Lab and English listening Lounge in Cárdenas-Claros, 2011). Although this software was interactive according to Hsu's (1994) definition, the use of these programmes in CALL educational research has been associated with some limitations. First, these programmes were produced through top-down materials' design approach that adopted the experiences and perspectives of stakeholders and marginalised those of learners. In other words, the software might not be well designed from learners' perspectives. Therefore, this approach has been broadly blamed for some designing issues affecting learners’ use of help options and hence their comprehension. For example, Pujolà (2002) attributed learners' underuse of help options to the difficulty in locating help options in the programme. Similarly, the participants in Grgurović's and Hegelheimer's (2007) study expressed their dissatisfaction with the programme's design because of lacking an option to escape help. Hence, Cárdenas-Claros (2011) argues that the interference of the factors related to material's design can be eliminated through a participatory design approach that involves learners in the planning stage. Konings (2010) examined the role of this approach through involving learners and teachers in the development of a learning environment. The researcher found that this approach increased the quality of the materials, involved users and met their satisfaction.

Second, these programmes offered too many help options and thus made it difficult to draw any conclusions. For instance, to investigate learners' interaction with help options, Pujolà (2002) used a web-based multimedia programme (imPRESSions) that offered seven help options. The researcher found it difficult to identify specific patterns describing learners' interaction with help options as they behaved in so many varied ways. Thus, he noted that learners tended not to take advantage of the available help options. However, it can be argued that the great variation in learners' behaviour in Pujola's study can be attributed to the high number of help options offered by the programme, unmentioned reason by the researcher. That is, because of having the choice of using seven help options, learners can be expected to neglect some help options for the sake of using other ones. They are simply offered more help than needed.  Thus, the design of multimedia-based listening materials enhanced by help options in ESL contexts should incorporate the findings and recommendations of the previous relevant research on both multimedia- based listening and help options.

As the term “multimedia” implies, the multimedia-based listening should provide learners with an access to the listening input that is enhanced by sound and full-motion video. Its choice is based on Krashen's (1985) Input Hypothesis which contends that language learners should be exposed to comprehensible input that is slightly more advanced than their current level. The video control buttons such as rewind, pause and seek allow learners to control the aural input at any point during the listening process. For example, learners can control the flow of the listening input at their own pace through the pausing button. The rewind function, moreover, gives learners the opportunity to repeat specific parts of the listening input or to listen again to the whole input. Learners can attend to any segment of the aural input through these functions enhancing the material as help options.

With regards to help options design, this paper’s recommendation is compatible with the design guidelines of the CoDe framework proposed by Cárdenas-Claros (2014). Unlike the top-down designing approaches, this framework is constructed through the participatory design approach that involves language learners, teachers, computer programmers and designers in the planning stage of the design.

The first guideline, strive for simple and intuitive design, entails exposing learners to easy-to-follow programmes notwithstanding their proficiency level or background experiences with the computer. In order to achieve this, the article recommends the following:

1 Locating the target help options in a horizontal toolbar above the multimedia listening resembling the toolbar of the major programmes learners are usually familiar with (e.g., Microsoft)

2 Putting help options under labels that clearly demonstrate their proposed function (e.g., the transcript help option is accessed through a button labelled "Transcript")

3 Offering a single-click-away access to help options since hidden help options frustrate learners and impede their comprehension (Pujolà, 2002).

The second guideline advocates the necessity to provide fewer, rather than more, help options within one programme. Fewer help options ensure the simplicity of the programme and thus aligning with the first guideline. Cárdenas-Claros (2014) adds that exposing learners to fewer help options help them define their roles in the multimedia-environment and stimulate their interaction with the available facilities.  

The third guideline emphasises the importance of minimising potential distractions. Distractions refer to any design issues that distract learners from staying on the given tasks or force them to take unnecessary steps to use help options (Cárdenas-Claros, 2011). Researchers pointed out some typical instances of these distractions such as forcing learners to open the transcript page to look up the glossed words (Cárdenas-Claros, 2005) and to use help options to close the question page (Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007; Sun, 2010). Researchers maintained that these distractions inhibit learners' interaction with help options and interfere with their comprehension.

The importance of following these design guidelines stems from their role in reducing learners' cognitive load, referring to the "total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory" (Sweller, 1980, cited in Cárdenas-Claros, 2011, p. 195), caused by integrating multimedia facilities with the target help options. This is especially crucial in the design of materials targeting listening comprehension because of its nature as a complex cognitive process (Buck, 2001). Accordingly, the simplicity of the design, the reduction of the number of help options and the avoidance of anticipated distractions can reserve more cognitive resources for comprehending the listening input and acting upon the given listening comprehension tasks.

Finally, to stimulate learners' interaction with the available help options, this article recommends that teachers equip their students with listening comprehension tasks to answer while interacting with help options in the multimedia-based listening. Both Buck (2001) and Richards (2008) agree that learners' listening comprehension can be aided through providing them with tasks targeting their bottom-up and top-down processing.

 

Conclusion

There appears to be a general agreement amongst published CALL theory and research (e,g., Hsu, 1994; Liou, 1997; Pujolà, 2002; Jones, 2003; Hegelheimer and Tower, 2004; Cárdenas-Claros, 2005; Grgurović, 2005; Grgurović and Hegelheimer, 2007; Cárdenas-Claros, 2011; Cárdenas-Claros and Gruba, 2012) that the theoretical basis for studies examining the use of help options in multimedia-based listening should be Long's (1983) Interaction Hypothesis. This hypothesis highlights the role of interaction and negotiation of meaning in obtaining comprehensible input, the key to L2 acquisition (Krashen, 1985). Based on this hypothesis, Chapelle (1998) presented her Interactionist model to guide CALL materials design. According to this model, help options can be deemed useful tools for attaining comprehensible input in CALL environments since they allow learners to add interactional modifications to the received input.

Hsu (1994), Pujolà (2002) and Cárdenas-Claros (2005) for example, used Long's (1983) Interaction Hypothesis to examine learners' interaction with the offered help options and identify specific instances of requesting interactional modifications. On the other hand, Liou (1997) and Grgurović and Hegelheimer (2007) used the hypothesis to guide their materials' design that aimed at exposing learners to multimedia-based listening enhanced by the availability of help options. Hence, the present paper used the hypothesis for both purposes, examining learners' interaction with the offered help options in the multimedia-based listening and informing the materials' design. It was concluded that learners tend to utilise the available help options when offered in a multimedia-based listening for different purposes. However, in order to enable them undergo negotiated interaction with the received input and hence maximising their listening comprehension and general language development, the design of help options in the multimedia- based listening should follow some fundamental guidelines, namely seeking simple design, reducing the number of help options and avoiding any potential distractions. The paper also recommends equipping the learners with some comprehension tasks to trigger their use of help options and promote their benefit of the received input in the multimedia-based listening.

 

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