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February 2025 - Year 27 - Issue 1

ISSN 1755-9715

The Art of Growing

Chrysa Papalazarou  is currently involved in the administrative side of education, but before that she has taught English to students of all ages for many years alongside writing, presenting and publishing about her endeavours to use art in the classroom. She is interested into how the interweaving of the aesthetic and social awareness component of artworks can introduce wider world issues to students, promote values, and contribute to a more thoughtful and creative flow in English language teaching and learning. Chrysa has created Art Least, a site on art, thinking and creativity in ELT. https://chrysapapalazarou.wordpress.com/

 

Acknowledgement

The text was originally published at

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/developing-expertise-through-experience

 

Early experiences

The silence of ABC

I grew up in Greece in the ’70s. The country was going through a difficult but forward-looking transition period of re-establishing a stable and democratic political scene, after years of devastation and turmoil. I started primary school just as the military junta was collapsing in 1974. My first primary school teacher, with a group of some 40 students under her responsibility, was very strict. I remember her looking at us from behind her huge spectacles, inspiring a mixture of awe and fear. She would demand absolute silence in the classroom, often resorting to her cane to maintain order. I felt bad when that happened and have had a distrust of authoritarian teacher behaviour ever since. I liked school nevertheless.

 

Arthur’s adventures and the Secret Garden

In the late 1970s, at the age of 10, I started learning English. There was no provision for foreign language teaching at the primary state sector at that time so my parents enrolled me in a private language school. The owner of the school had made two curricular choices that for me triggered a good initial rapport with the English language: a captivating coursebook and the use of videos. The coursebook Starting Out dealt with the adventures of Arthur, a shy young librarian. The story was funny, the texts and dialogues humorous, and the brilliant illustrations pop up in my mind’s eye even today. I liked the combination of engaging texts and intriguing visuals which offset the boredom of class translation. Until it was my turn to read and translate, I drew speech bubbles and wrote my own dialogues for the heroes.

Once a week, for a designated time, we watched video. At a time when most of our own homes did not have a video player, let alone our state school, so that was really special. My most vivid memories are from the Follow Me BBC TV course and the Secret Garden, a dramatized version of Frances Hodgson Burnett’s novel. The latter also triggered my desire to read literature in English. As I moved onwards to exam goals, books became dull and exposure to videos was minimal. We had to study a lot of grammar, memorize vocabulary lists, and undergo drilling. I missed my first years of learning English.   

 

Language and culture

In the late 1980s, I found myself at the University, in the department of English Language and Literature. The department was characterized by poor resources and facilities, lectures for large groups of students, a teacher-led approach, and minimal contact with the faculty. From dealing with reading extracts and multiple-choice questions I moved on to productive work on essays about culture, literature, theatre and history. The amount of reading I did at that time boosted my language proficiency and my fascination with other cultures. I realized how learning a foreign language opened up a whole new world of understanding and how language and culture could not exist without each other. 

 

The pedagogue and the flow

In my last year at the university I met John Chioles. His classes introduced us to literature as a cultural phenomenon. We did a performance of Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night's Dream. Pushed by a friend, and against my reserved nature, I auditioned for the role of Puck, Oberon’s naughty messenger. I got accepted in the group and spent the next months being part of day-long rehearsals. Chioles designed and created an experience into which we were immersed, first unconsciously and then, as time went by, more and more consciously. He pushed us to higher levels of performance and got us absorbed in speaking Shakespearean language in the most fascinating hands-on way. In retrospect I think Chioles was a brilliant pedagogue. It was the first time I had experienced an alternative to the teacher-led approach I had been exposed to until then. He created the conditions for a flow, an optimal experience which helped us push our boundaries forward, feel more skilled, and invest our energy in meaningful and enjoyable learning. A lifelong love for theatre was instilled in me.

 

Influences from work-places

Testing: Master of the game.

In the early 1990s I started working full-time. My first job was in a private language school. I got a decent salary, but did not have all the insurance benefits I was entitled to. I had had no training so the coursebook was a life-jacket at that time. The book was focussed on skill-based activities, bits and pieces of artificial language and extensive reliance on grammar through the PPP-method. After my first year there, I was assigned exam classes. This necessitated endless drilling, gap-filling, doing multiple-choice tests, and memorizing vocabulary on the part of the students. Testing was the master of the game of teaching. I thought this was the norm. I had obtained my certificates through a similar mode and had internalized this process as the only one available. As time passed, I began to feel frustrated that students could not learn what I wished to teach. I also noticed how students, although they had a very clear and visible goal, failed to remain motivated. It seemed as though the goal of taking examinations and acquiring a language certificate was not convincing enough for them. These were mechanized working conditions. I felt stress and anxiety weighing on me. I left after four years. 

  

Teaching the outcasts

My university degree entitled me to start looking for work within the state sector. My first job was on an hourly basis in a vocational training school in a deprived area of Athens. My first day there was a bit of a shock. I had to teach two hundred young men. The school operated in the late afternoon and evening, and students got there after finishing their working day. Classes had more than 20 students. Most of them came from lower-income backgrounds. They thought of themselves as the outcasts of the education system; their self-esteem and motivation were low. Their level of English was basic or worse. I started using the set coursebooks, but soon this proved to be totally fruitless. After flirting with the initial thought of quitting, I started searching for a solution. I asked students to bring any useful material they came across. We ended up with a materials bank comprising safety-precautions, instruction manuals, machine diagrams, and packaging instructions. We would go through these together and I helped them with terminology. Progress was slow, but there were signs of appreciation and motivation on the part of the students. We also talked a lot about their worries and problems. I then felt that learning could occur beyond course-books and that teaching is a deeply human endeavour. 

 

Teaching in difficult circumstances

In 1994 I was temporarily appointed to a primary school in a suburb of Athens. I knew nothing about teaching primary-school children and nothing in my university classes or previous experience had prepared me for this. My classes were mixed-ability, multi-level and multi-ethnic, since the school was in an area with a large Roma population. A number of their children were attending our school. I came to learn how difficult school was for them because their Romani language was not written, but only spoken. They were often absent from classes and some of them literally disappeared for parts of the year, travelling to other areas in the country for seasonal work. Sustained progress was extremely difficult. They were bright children, but mostly low-achievers or below-average at best. They were a minority in the classroom and relationships with other students varied from marginalization to passive acceptance. Coursebooks were totally irrelevant to their culture and life, and this might have been one cause of their disruptive behaviour. Although I mainly adhered to direct instruction through the PPP-method following the coursebook syllabus, I integrated more communicative tasks: simple dialogues, miming, role plays, and songs. These were small changes of an impromptu kind, but they improved the classroom atmosphere. The Roma students felt more motivated and responded better. I came to believe that coursebooks could be totally irrelevant for some students and that small changes could have noticeably positive effects in the classroom. 

 

A second chance

In 2007 I returned to work after a few years off for family reasons - and an educational leave where I completed an MA in comparative education and human rights. I then came across an announcement by the Ministry of Education asking for teachers interested in being seconded in Second Chance Schools (SCS). I applied and got the post of English tutor in an SCS in the Athens area. SCSs aim at integrating adults at risk of social exclusion, through an innovative programme involving a coursebook-free syllabus, and no testing and marking. The initial training I received was generic and transmissive, touching briefly upon topics such as student-centred pedagogy, multi-literacies, multi-modality, critical literacy, and group- work. It was the first time I heard about these theoretical and methodological concepts.

One main difficulty I encountered was how to accommodate in the same classroom the needs of adults from such diverse backgrounds in terms of ethnic origin, age, social and educational needs, as well as language needs. There were beginners, false-beginners, and very few cases of pre-intermediate students. After consulting colleagues, I started designing a communicative syllabus based on collaboration with the students. We also worked extensively with projects, held class assemblies to discuss outcomes, and students were encouraged to keep portfolios. It was a lifetime achievement for these people that they began to feel literate in a social and media environment where English dominated. The timetable also offered the opportunity to conduct weekly workshops. In one of these I used art for the first time and came in contact with the Visible Thinking approach (Perkins, 2003). My period at the SCS whetted my appetite for further experimentation and discovery. It was a second chance for me as well as for them. The autonomy I enjoyed facilitated curricular initiatives and risk-taking. I felt more confident. I came to see how art could be used in the language class. This whole experience also confirmed my belief that learning could occur beyond coursebooks. 

 

Following the thread

My return to mainstream primary education in 2011 in a district of Athens coincided with the introduction of the Integrated Foreign Language Curriculum. The syllabus was still a coursebook-based one. However, elements such as the communicative dimension of foreign language teaching and the promotion of student thinking and socialization were emphasized. Other emerging curricular innovations were multi-literacies and multimodality. This felt like a continuation from my SCS experience. At the time my school advisor set up a special interest group for art in teaching as part of her development programme. I joined and started exchanging ideas with colleagues. In 2013, I started the Art in the English Class project with my upper-primary, eleven year-old students. I wanted to do something about the problem of low motivation related to coursebooks. The project aimed at creating a more affective and effective learning experience.

In this ongoing approach students are exposed to paintings, and other forms of visual media which are linked to a topic. Student thinking is encouraged through relevant activities. Other activities hone the ability to find meaning in imagery. We share our thinking and ideas and take notes. Student writing involves describing and reflecting on lesson experience. The topics bring real-world issues in the classroom. It is rewarding to see how well these topics resonate with students’ needs. Sharing their thoughts dissolves students’ fear and anxiety of expressing themselves in English. I intervene at the point of need to give feedback and information about the language they need. Thus new language and language they already know are used in a meaningful context of communication. This approach has boosted my belief that alternatives to coursebook work are possible and fruitful even in mainstream education.

At the same time I started blogging. Sharing classroom ideas and insights with other colleagues all over the world has been a mind-blowing experience. I felt strongly I could learn so much from others, and that there was a vast terrain of on-line possibilities for continuous professional development. I became curious about the global ELT discourse. I attended online webinars and was invited to give them. I joined associations and presented at conferences. I also contributed to publications. Overall, I have pursued new ways for my professional growth as a teacher. 

 

Key people

Some of the people who have contributed to my ongoing sense of plausibility are mentioned here in the order our paths first crossed.

John Chioles, my BA university professor. A brilliant pedagogue who unleashed creative and expressive potential I had no idea was in me. His influence has had a lifelong impact and proved to me that teachers can be agents of transformation.

My school advisor, Eleni Manolopoulou, is the person who set up an art special interest group that sparked my systematic work with art and visuals. Through her support, I had the chance to share my work with colleagues, conduct workshops, give presentations, and grow professionally. 

I would not have started my own blog had it not been for Kieran Donaghy’s Film English website. He is a pioneer in using video in language teaching to embrace values and empathy. Kieran has been a source of inspiration. Being a member of the Visual Arts Circle which he and Anna Whitcher founded (http://www.visiblethinkingpz.org/VisibleThinking_html_files/VisibleThinking1.html)

got me in touch with a group of like-minded people.

The first on-line course I attended was Contrasting Conversations by John Fanselow at the iTDi (International Teacher Development Institute). I learnt the importance of recording and transcribing lessons and was surprised to see how much I talk during class time. I also had my first intimations with reflective practice which led me to observe and analyze my classes more systematically. 

My precious friend and mentor Arnold Mühren, a truly reflective thinker, made me realize how important a teacher’s personal voice of experience is and he encouraged me to express my own. Engaging with him in many conversations has enriched my ideas on teaching and learning. He has helped me appreciate clarity in written expression.

I have also been influenced by Alan Maley’s impactful work on an aesthetic approach in ELT and on the theory and practice of creativity. Being a member of the C Group (Creativity for Change in Language Education) (www.thecreativitygroup.weebly.com) which he initiated has brought me in contact with various facets and practices of creativity in ELT around the world. His support of colleagues has been a constant source of motivation for me.   

 

Key ideas

These are some key ideas which have contributed to my current beliefs and practice. 

 

Art

I am interested in the role of paintings in language teaching and learning. Working with art is an emotional experience that helps students direct their attention inward to what they believe or feel, engage their imagination, and open a dialogue to share their thoughts and build on the thoughts of others (Eisner, 2002). Paintings also weave values about our world into an aesthetic visual representation. By exposing students to this fabric, we give them the chance to understand better the world they live in.

 

Creativity in thinking

Over time, I have come to pay more attention to developing students’ thinking skills. These involve observing, describing, reasoning with evidence, looking for more than one possible answers, sharing thinking with others, connecting, and capturing the heart (Ritchhart et al., 2011). These activities stem from the Visible and Artful Thinking approach developed within Project Zero, an educational research group at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. They nurture a creative mindset (Perkins, 2003; Tishman and Palmer, 2007). I view creativity as a process promoting a more open and questioning relationship to others and to the world.

 

Aesthetic experience

Paintings help students generate their own discourse in the language class. Using them starts a process of making meaning whereby students build understanding individually, but also through their classmates’ points of view (Vygotsky, 1978). This merging of the personal and collective also stimulates aesthetic experience (Housen, 1999). My role is to create and manage the learning environment. As the process unfolds, students teach each other, they become the source of their own learning in terms of language, observations and views (Housen, 2007). They are more willing to take risks with language because they are engaged. 

 

Visual literacy

I have also drawn on the Visual Thinking Strategies framework (Housen, 1999; Housen, 2007; Yenawin, 2003). This is an approach towards developing visual literacy where viewing and representing are key processes. Both comprehending complexity and finding meaning in imagery are involved, as well as communicating visually through drawing, creating diagrams, or graphs (Begoray, 2001). I am fascinated by the way students’ notes and writing are highly individualized when working with paintings and visuals. They involve diverse modes of expression where language and drawings, diagrams, colours and symbols happily coexist.

 

Social issues

We live in a highly turbulent world. In this world, especially in western societies, children are increasingly regarded as economic units. They are targeted by multi-million ad-campaigns and grow up with contradictory messages and mass-media imagery that often create an exploitative attitude towards each other and the environment. Their coursebooks also often depict a consumerist lifestyle. The antidote is selecting imagery of a different kind when introducing relevant social issues. 

 

Influential reading

Some key publications in my professional life include:

Arts and the creation of the mind (Eisner, 2002)

A compelling book on the value of arts education. Αmong other things it has influenced my belief that standardization of learning should not be the goal of schools.

Making Thinking Visible Ritchart, Church and Morrison, 2001.

This book gives the theoretical and research background to the Visible Thinking approach. I have been greatly helped and motivated by its practical advice on how to foster thinking by encouraging imaginative and creative learning.

The Image in ELT Donaghy and Xerri (eds) 2017.

A seminal publication on the use of imagery in language teaching and learning.

Creativity in the English Language Classroom.  Maley and Peachey(eds.) (2015).

An inspirational publication with a plethora of practical ideas on the diverse aspects of creativity.

Integrating Global Issues in the creative English language classroom. Maley and Peachey (eds.) (2017)

An innovative book in marrying creative teaching ideas and the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals.

Breaking Rules  Fanselow (1987)

A groundbreaking work that introduced me to exploring the effects on teaching of greater diversity in content, process, and roles.

Tuiavii’s Way: A South Sea Chief’s Comments on Western Society. Erich Scheurmann (1997).

An intriguing mixture of anthropology and fiction that has given me a new perspective on our way of life in western societies. It has also alerted me to the ‘civilized’ vs ‘uncivilized’ discourse. 

 

Insightful moments

Into powerful language

While working on the topic of war/peace through Picasso’s Guernica, I had used a see-think-wonder routine and had asked students to observe carefully and answer the questions: What do you see? What do you think about it? What does it make you wonder? As I walked around the class to check whether they needed help with the language to express their ideas, a student asked for two words: drown and chaos. When they had finished writing, they started speaking and sharing ideas. This particular student, when reaching the ‘I think’ part, said: ‘I think people are drowning in chaos.’ I was taken aback at how powerful, metaphoric, poetic this was. An eleven-year-old had captured in one sentence all the complexity of the painting and its symbolism and with such economy of words and without knowing anything about the artwork. And all this had happened in the English class. Up until that moment I had been applying the approach intuitively. This was the first time I started thinking consciously about the importance of powerful visual input for producing meaningful language and about the deep student engagement the approach could create. I reminded myself that I should stay on this track. 

 

Creative chaos

Students were working in groups on the war/peace topic mentioned before. We used a colour, symbol, image routine where students chose colours, symbols, and images that they felt represented the ideas they had discussed. Things got quite noisy as each group talked about their choices. They also made use of their first language. My first thought was to stop this chaotic situation and encourage them to use only the target language. My second thought was to step back - which is what I finally did. By doing so, I saw more clearly that ideas began to emerge. Each group was exploring what they needed to do for this task. Roles were defined to establish who would draw, colour, take notes, and who would write what on the final poster. Ideas worth further exploration were put forward, while others were discarded. I stepped in whenever students asked for help with language they needed and then stepped back again. Final selections of colours, symbols, images, showed how the students had developed their understanding of war/peace by making connections and thinking metaphorically. They used images and thought in terms of images. Meanings were the outcome of the negotiation that took place. I was convinced that from this kind of ‘chaos’ there could be collaborative creativity.

 

A moment of silence

In a recent class we used What after, a powerful painting by the Syrian artist, Louay Kayyali. It shows eleven characters (eight women, a young man and two children, one of them holding a white dove, all in a standing position). Misery is shown on all faces. The characters are all barefoot, illustrating hurried eviction. The students first described what the painting showed and reached the conclusion that these are refugees. Then I asked each student to identify with one of the figures. From their chosen perspective, they reflected on the questions: ‘What do you perceive? What do you believe? What do you care about?’ The students were absorbed in this activity because the painting had such an emotional impact on them. Once they had written their ideas, I asked them to dramatize their lines in class. ‘I perceive that I will die and have nothing, no food, no home and I feel so empty like I have no blood in me.’ ‘I perceive that all the good memories have suddenly disappeared and in their turn there are only bad memories.’  ‘I perceive that my country will be in ruins after this war’. ‘  ...I believe that all the countries should help us to find shelter.’  ‘I believe that we don’t have hope to survive and I’m scared.’  ‘I care about my family and I’m angry because I can’t do anything to save us.’  ‘I care about my relatives and I want them to be safe.’  ‘I care about my white dove because it’s my only hope.’  These words fell like bombs in the classroom. The whole refugee narrative was there. A narrative of war, ruins, death, emptiness, hopelessness, impotence, survival. But also one of love, hope and solidarity. When that part finished there was a remarkable moment of unexpected, absolute silence. This is something not common in primary classes. To me that silence signified awareness, understanding and empathy. Then some children asked if they could work out an extra perspective, different from the one they had initially chosen.

I think how important it is to deal with such issues and how art can enable us to step into the shoes of others. This is a capacity closely linked with cross-cultural development. It is what makes us human, how we discern values, make choices, express our moral commitment.

 

Suggestions for teacher training

If I were to be trained now, I would like the programme to include more attention to roles that in general are minimally dealt with at present.

 

Teacher as materials designer

Having more control over materials design, we can be more responsive to classroom diversity. It also gives us more control over topics and skills. When choosing appropriate material, we make a series of choices and decisions which are informed by our students’ needs. We should strive for materials that are interesting and relevant, materials that can enable students to respond both personally, and intellectually.   

 

Teacher as writer

Blogging about practice improves a teacher’s writing and communication skills. It also hones their reflective skills in what, how and why they do certain things in the classroom. I believe that a blog gives voice to our profession and communicates it with the wider community. Writing interacts with reading and with each post the author is pushed to do some relevant reading which adds to their learning. In my case, writing for the blog motivates me to pursue other genres such as articles and book chapters, each contributing to my professional knowledge and development. 

   

Teacher as critical pedagogue

In coursebooks visuals do play a role, but their full potential is rarely exploited. Social issues are virtually non-existent. Student needs should be dealt with not only in terms of their cognitive and linguistic development, but also their emotional, aesthetic, and social growth. Issues such as bullying, intolerance, racism, disability, poverty, refugees are worth bringing into the classroom. It is not a matter of telling students what to think, but of giving them the opportunity to do their own thinking.    

 

My beliefs

Beliefs about the student experience:

  • Knowing learners’ needs is important.

  • Lack of motivation is often the outcome of low self-esteem. 

  • Exam goals do not guarantee students’ motivation. 

  • Students can always surprise me. 

  • Interesting and motivating content stimulate the imagination of students.

Beliefs about language learning:

  • Visuals have a powerful impact on language learning. 

  • Affective aspects of content-matter interact positively with language learning. 

  • Learning a foreign language can nurture open-mindedness. 

  • Language learning is effective when it takes place in a meaningful context.

  • Language learning is severely affected by testing goals. 

  • The linear way of presentation in coursebooks does not guarantee progress in learning.

Beliefs about growing as a teacher:

  • Experimentation and curiosity help me grow professionally. 

  • Being inventive is an important asset for a language teacher.

  • Small changes in teaching can have a disproportionately great impact. 

  • Autonomy is important for teacher-confidence.

  • Writing materials relevant to my students’ needs is a powerful form of professional development.

  • Colleagues are a valuable source of learning.

  • Teachers can and should be agents of transformation.  

 

References

Artful Thinking Website. Available online at: http://pzartfulthinking.org/

Begoray, D. (2001) Through a Class Darkly: Visual Literacy in the Classroom. Canada Journal of Education, 26 (2): 201-217.

Eisner, E. W. (2002)  The Arts and the Creation of the Mind. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.

Donaghy, K and Xerri, D (eds.) (2017) The image in English language teaching. Malta: ELT Council. Available online at: https://visualmanifesto.files.wordpress.com/2017/09/the-image-in-english-language-teaching-2017.pdf

Fanselow, J. F. (1987) Breaking Rules: Generating and Exploring Alternatives in Language Teaching. New York: Longman.

Housen, A. (1999) Eye of the beholder: Research, theory and practice. Paper presented at Aesthetic and Art Education: A Transdisciplinary

Approach, Lisbon, Portugal. Available online at: https://vtshome.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/5Eye-of-the-Beholder.pdf

Housen, A. (2007) Art Viewing and Aesthetic Development: Designing for the Viewer’. Available online at: 

https://vtshome.org/wp-content/.../08/2Housen-Art-Viewing-.pdf

Maley, A. and N. Peachey. (eds.) (2017) Integrating Global Issues in the creative English language classroom: With reference to the United Nations sustainable development goals. London: British Council. Available online at: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/.../PUB_29200_Creativity_UN_SDG_v4S_WEB.pdf

Maley, A. and N. Peachey. (eds.) (2015) Creativity in the English language classroom. London: British Council. Available online at: https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/pub_f004_elt_creativity_final_v2_web-1.pdf

Maley, A. (2010) Towards an Aesthetics of ELT. Advances in Language and Literary Studies. Available online at: http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/alls/article/view/26

Maley, A. (2013) Creative Approaches to Writing Materials. In B.Tomlinson. (ed.) Developing materials for language teaching. London: Bloomsbury Academic. 167-188.

Papalazarou, C. (2017) Images on canvas: art, thinking and creativity. In Donaghy, K. and D. Xerri. The image in English language teaching. Malta: ELT Council. 89-104. Available online at: https://visualmanifesto.files.wordpress.com/2017/09/the-image-in-english-language-teaching-2017.pdf

Papalazarou, C. (2017) Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. In: Maley, A. and N. Peachey. Integrating Global Issues in the creative English language classroom: With reference to the United Nations sustainable development goals. London: British Council. 145-155.

Available online at: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/.../PUB_29200_Creativity_UN_SDG_v4S_WEB.pdf

Papalazarou, C. (2015) Making thinking visible in the English classroom: Nurturing a creative mind-set. In Maley, A and N. Peachey, (eds.) Creativity in the English language classroom. London: British Council. 37-43.            Available online at: https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/pub_f004_elt_creativity_final_v2_web-1.pdf.

Perkins, D. (2003) Making Thinking Visible. Harvard Graduate School of Education. Available online at: http://www.visiblethinkingpz.org/VisibleThinking_html_files/06_AdditionalResources/MakingThinkingVisible_DP.pdf.

Prabhu, N. S. (1987) Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ritchhart, R, Church, M. and K. Morrison. (2011) Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and Independence for All Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The C Group.  Available on line at: www.thecreativitygroup.weebly.com

Tishman, S and P. Palmer. (2007). Works of art are good things to think about. Paper presented at Evaluating the Impact of Arts and Cultural Education Conference, Paris, France. Available online at: https://goo.gl/xl40sh.

Tomlinson, B. (ed.) (2013) Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: Bloomsbury Academic.

Tuiavii, (translation by) Scheuermann, E (1997) Tuiavii’s Way: A South Sea Chief’s Comments on Western Society. Legacy Editions.

Visible Thinking Website.   Available online at  http://www.visiblethinkingpz.org/VisibleThinking_html_files/VisibleThinking1.html

Visual Thinking Strategies Website. Available online at https://vtshome.org/

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in Society. The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Yenawine, P (2003) Jump starting visual literacy: Thoughts on image selection. Art Education, 56 (1), pp. 6-12.

 

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